Cells

Question: cells????????????????????????????????? why do organisms have many cells instead of being made with one gigantic cell?

Answer: A normal sized cell has a large surface area to volume ratio, which makes diffusion of necessary materials in the necessary quantities efficient and fast enough to keep the cell alive and functioning normally. If the cell was the size of a person, it would have a very small surface area to volume ratio and would have extreme difficulty getting adequate resources to function.

Question: Why does a living organism have different types of cells? Your body is made of about 10 trillion cells. The largest human cells are about the diameter of a human hair, but most human cells are smaller -- perhaps one-tenth of the diameter of a human hair. Run your fingers through your hair now and look at a single strand. It is not very thick -- maybe 100 microns in diameter (a micron is a millionth of a meter, so 100 microns is a tenth of a millimeter). A typical human cell might be one-tenth of the diameter of your hair (10 microns). Look down at your little toe -- it might represent 2 or 3 billion cells or so, depending on how big you are. Imagine a whole house filled with baby peas. If the house is your little toe, the peas are the cells. That's a lot of cells! At a microscopic level, we are all composed of cells. Look in a mirror -- what you see is about 10 trillion cells divided into about 200 different types of cells. Our muscles are made of muscle cells, our livers of liver cells, and there are even very specialized types of cells that make the enamel for our teeth or the clear lenses in our eyes! If you want to understand how your body works, you need to understand cells. Everything from reproduction to infections to repairing a broken bone happens down at the cellular level. If you want to understand new frontiers like biotechnology and genetic engineering, you need to understand cells as well. Quick Review All life is made of cells. Most scientists divide life into 5 separate kingdoms (Plants, Animals, Protists, Moneran, & Fungi) based on their similarities and differences. Some life forms are very simple and made of only one cell (Moneran, Protists, some Fungi). Other life forms (Animals, Plants, some Fungi) are made of many cells that work together In the last lesson we saw what most cells have in common. When you hear the word cells or study cells you can put a picture in your mind of what a cell looks like. You are familiar with the basic parts of all cells, like a cell membrane, the nucleus, and the mitochondria. In this lesson, our purpose is to see how cells are different. We call this cell differentiation. In the nucleus of each cell you will find small structures called chromosomes. These hold the plan, like a set of blueprints, which decides what a cell will look like and what its job will be. A maple tree is an example of a complex organism. It has many cells, but some of the tons of cells do one job, while some of the tons of cells do another job. That is why if I handed you a piece of a maple tree you could tell right away if it was a piece of bark, root, or a leaf. Each of those parts are made of cells. Each type of cell (leaf cells, bark cells, etc.) has a special task to do so the tree can survive. The leaf gathers sunlight to make food for the tree, but obviously the roots, being underground, away from the sun, don’t do the same job. They bring water to the leaves and anchor the tree in place. A leaf cell can only make more leaf cells and a bark cell can only make more bark cells. All types of complex organisms have different cells to do different jobs. To better understand cell differentiation we are going use an example with which you are very familiar --- your body. FUN FACT: All cells are 90% water. How are Cells organized? Every living thing is made of separate cells. They can do their specific job, and work together. Cells in your body are organized like a school district is organized. In a school there are levels of organization. Students are organized into classes. Classes are organized into grade levels. Grade levels are organized into schools. Schools are organized into a school district. Life forms have a similar arrangement. Individual cells join together to form tissue, like muscle tissue, bone tissue, or skin tissue. Tissues join together to form organs, like your lungs, your brain, or your intestines. Organs join together to form a whole body system, like the skeletal system, nervous system, or the digestive system. All the body systems join to form the organism. Comparing cells to schools would look something like this: Example in a person Level of organization in a person Level of organization in a school Muscle cell Cell Student Muscle tissues Tissues Classes Heart muscle Organs Grade Levels Circulatory System Organ Systems Schools Person Organism School District Let’s Get Moving! What happens when you run, jump, swim, just tap you fingers on the desk, or even yawn? Muscles help your body do these actions. Plants don’t move around so they don’t need muscle tissue which is made of muscle cells. These long stringy fibers can pull together and then relax. When a muscle cell in your body contracts, it is using energy to move some part of you. You know muscle cells in your arms are working when you pick up a heavy box. But they’re even busy extending and contracting when you smile, frown, breathe, or laugh. Your heart muscle cells NEVER get a break, keeping your heart beating even when you are asleep. ONLY SKIN DEEP?? Plants have a layer of outer cells to protect what’s inside, just like that plastic sandwich bag protects your bologna and cheese sandwich. You have a protective layer, too --- your skin cells. Touch your hand and you’re touching many thousands of skin cells. All of your outer cells (the ones you can touch) are dead. But just underneath this surface are neat rows of living skin cells. Squeezed in between those skin cells are other types of cells; nerve cells, which allow you to feel things; fat cells that keep you warm; and capillary cells that make sure all the cells are supplied with oxygen and nutrients from your bloodstream. Skin cells are shaped a little like building blocks, all fitting neatly together and holding all of you together. The Eyes Have It Your eyes have nerve cells that turn light into electrical impulses and then send them to your brain. Cone shaped cells pick up bright lights and colors and rod-shaped cells respond to dimmer signals. The retina of your eye contains about 137 million light-sensitive cells in an area about one square inch. There are 130 million rod shaped cells for black and white vision and 7 million cone cells for color vision. Dogs also have special light sensitive cells called cones, which are needed for color vision. However dogs don’t have as many cones, or as many types of cones, as people do. Dogs see greenish-blue colors as white or grey. They can tell the difference between blues and reds, but confuse colors ranging between greenish yellow and red. This means your dog may have a hard time spotting a red ball on a green lawn. Bone Cells & Fat Cells Bone cells aren’t all hard and brittle, like you might think. Like your other cells, they are soft and surrounded by membranes. But these cells need calcium and are grouped to form bony tissue. Without our bony skeleton to hold us up, we’d sink to the ground in a big heap. Fat Cells look like a bunch of bubbles. They store energy and help insulate the body from cold. When you eat more calories than your body can use that day, your body stores that extra energy as fat, for later. If you run a long race or participate in a strenuous sporting event, you may need more energy than your body has taken in that day. You fat cells are ready to keep your body energized for those intense times. Your body has many other types of cells. Each type has a specific job and looks different from other cell types, but does look like other cells of the same type. Bone cells look like other bone cells, but look nothing like liver cells. Tools for Viewing Cells A magnifying glass can magnify a cell 10-20 times. An average microscope can magnify a cell 40, 100, & 400 times. An advanced optical microscope can magnify a cell 2,000 times. An electron microscope can magnify a cell 1 million times. . Check out these helpful Web sites (current June 2004) www.cellsalive.com www.eurekascience.com Heart Muscle Cell Image copyright Dennis Kunkel. Here is a micrograph (a photo taken through a microscope) of the muscle tissue in a human heart.

Answer: The six characteristics of living things, and an explanation of each one. Theme #1 - Cells All living things are composed of one or more cells. Different types of cells have different "jobs" within the organism. Each life form begins from one cell, which then will split. These cells split, and so on. After this has happened several times, differentiation is undergone, when the cells change so that they are not the same thing anymore. Then they are used to begin to put together the final organism, some cells, for example, as the eyes, some as the heart, etc. The only arguable exception to this is viruses. They are not composed of cells, but are said to be "living." Theme#2 - Organization Complex organization patterns are found in all living organisms. They arrange themselves on very small levels, grouping like things together. On larger levels, they become visible. This also has to do with differentiation, as the cells are organized in a manner that makes sense for the organism after they change to what they’ll be in the final organism. Theme#3 - Energy Use All organisms use energy. The sum of the chemical energy they use is called metabolism. This energy is used to carry out everything they do. Autotrophs (plants) use energy from the sun for photosynthesis, to make their own ‘food’ (glucose). Heterotrophs (animals and humans) must ingest food for this purpose. Theme#4 - Homeostasis All organisms have stable internal conditions which must be maintained in order to remain alive. These include temperature, water content, heartbeat, and other such things. In a way, this has to do with energy use, because a certain level of energy must be kept within the body at all times. For this, obviously, humans must then ingest food on a regular basis. Not all conditions are for the body to maintain itself; though most are. Theme#5 - Growth All organisms grow and change. Cells divide to form new, identical cells. Differentiation happens, as well, when cells mutate into other types of cells, making a more complex organism. Organisms growing, changing, and becoming more complex is called development. Single-celled organisms do grow as well, but they will only become slightly larger – this is nearly unmeasurable. Theme#6 - Reproduction All organisms reproduce in order to continue the species' life. This is combining genetic information (in sexual reproduction) or splitting into two organisms (in asexual reproduction) in order to create another of the same species. In sexual reproduction, the new organism will have some characteristics from the mother, and some from father. It may look like either of them, or it may not. In asexual reproduction, the new organism is an exact copy of the first. Sometimes, not every member of a species is able to reproduce. As long as others are (which we know they can, if they still exist today) then it does not threaten the species. (Except for mules, but don't worry about them, they are a bizarre anomoly.)

Question: How do you combine precedent cells in Excel while preserving data values? How do I combine precedent cells without having to go to each dependent cell in Excel 2003 and re-link it automatically. Example: I have Precedent Cell A1 that is linked to dependent cells A2. I also have precedent cell B1 that is linked to dependent cell B2. Is there any way to combine A1 and B1 so that the resulting combined cell is a precedent for A2 and B2.

Answer: It would have been better if you had supplied the actual values and/or formulas and cell references that you are talking about in your example. Without that to go on, it is possible, but it usually results in what is called a "Circular Reference". And that causes MS-Excel to come up with a warning message, which may be followed by a special Toolbar and the Help file, depending on your response to the error message. If you are doing mathematical calculations, then you may wish to have this type of referencing, especially if you are dealing with chaos theory and/or fractals, which have iterations. When a formula refers back to its own cell, either directly or indirectly, it is called a circular reference. MS-Excel cannot automatically calculate all open Workbooks when one of them contains a circular reference. You can remove a circular reference, or you can have Excel calculate each cell involved in the circular reference once by using the results of the previous iteration. Unless you change the default settings for iteration, Excel stops calculating after 100 iterations or after all values in the circular reference change by less than 0.001 between iterations, whichever comes first. To locate and remove a circular reference: ------------------------------------------------------------ 1. If the Circular Reference toolbar is not displayed, click Customize on the Tools menu, click the Toolbars tab, and then select the Circular Reference check box. 2. On the Circular Reference toolbar, click the first cell in the Navigate Circular Reference box. 3. Review the formula in the cell. If you cannot determine whether the cell is the cause of the circular reference, click the next cell in the Navigate Circular Reference box. __Note:__ The status bar displays the word "Circular", followed by a reference to one of the cells contained in the circular reference. If the word "Circular" appears without a cell reference, the active worksheet does not contain the circular reference. 4. Continue to review and correct the circular reference until the status bar no longer displays the word "Circular". __Tip:__ When the Circular Reference toolbar appears, tracer arrows appear that point out the cells that depend on the formula. You can move between cells in a circular reference by double-clicking the tracer arrows. To make a circular reference work by changing number of iterations: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1. On the Tools menu, click Options, and then click the Calculation tab. 2. Select the Iteration check box. 3. To set the maximum number of times MS-Excel will recalculate, type the number of iterations in the Maximum iterations box. The higher the number of iterations, the more time Excel needs to calculate a worksheet. 4. To set the maximum amount of change you will accept between calculation results, type the amount in the Maximum change box. The smaller the number, the more accurate the result and the more time Excel needs to calculate a worksheet. EXAMPLE: ---------------- . Cell . . . . . . . Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Result . . . . . . . . A1 . . . . . . . . =A2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.6438E+209 . B1 . . . . . . . . =B2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.6438E+209 . A2 . . . . . . . . =2+SUM(A1,B1) . . . . . . 3.2876E+209 . B2 . . . . . . . . =3+SUM(A1,B1) . . . . . . 3.2876E+209 The above was done with iterations set to the default of 100.

Question: What would it take for human cells to correctly divide and regenerate themselves indefinitely? Looking at it from the normal biological viewpoint, the reason humans age and eventually die is that cells, over time, slowly lose their ability to correctly divide and regenerate themselves. As time passes, cells lose small but cumulative portions of their ability to divide correctly and with fidelity to the original. That is allegedly why we age and eventually die (if of normal causes). On the other hand, we have cancer... cells that refuse to die, continue dividing indefinitely but do so with deadly mutations and changes that produce cells that become malignant tumors, etc. Is it possible for cells to be able to regenerate and reproduce indefinitely but do so without losing the ability to correctly replicate the original cell? What would it take to produce a cell with such characteristics. Is there a lifeform on our planet right now that has the ability to do that? If so, does anyone understand how that happens?

Answer: There are at least four conditions that must be meant if a cell is to remain continuously young: 1. It must replicate and repair its DNA with precision. 2. Its telomeres must be lengthen back to normal every so many cell divisions. 3. It must rid itself of oxidents (metabolic toxins). 4. It must mantain its mitochondria (energy source) at peak performance. There are probably other requirments but these are the four primary ones. Aging, it appears, in normal somatic cells is a trade-off made for being differentiated (specialized). In cancer, becoming immortal is a result of dedifferentiation (becoming unspecialized). It seems that the nature of cancer cells and that of normal somatic cells are diametrically opposites. Cancer cells attempt to move from a stable somatic state to one that is embryonic by nature. Somatic cells evolve from unstable embryonic to stable somatic condition. There is a middle road, it seems, as might be observed in the biology and biochemistry of embryonic stem cells, when compared to the more differentiated adult version stem cells. I think that the answer for rejuvenating aging somatic cells can be found in cancer cell cytoplasm. Cancer, like all early embryos, are little factories for the production of the enzyme, Telomerase. Telomerase is the protein that keeps telomeres at the ends of chromosomes the proper length. In somatic cells, each time the cell divides, its telomeres at the ends of it 46 chromosomes gets shorter and shorter until they become so short that the chromosomes are damaged and the cell cannot divide further. See: Background: Telomeres and Telomerase http://www.geron.com/showpage.asp?code=prodcaba My guess is that, if it was possible to fuse an aged somatic cell with a bit of cancer cell cytoplasm, the cancer cytoplasm would rejuvenate and restore the somatic cell. The reason that all it need is the cancer cell cytoplasm is something called housekeeping proteins. These important protein are long lived in the cancer cytoplasm and if fused into a normal somatic cell, it would be able to make use of those proteins immediately. Cancer cell cytoplasm takes care of telomere length and resetting the biological clock. The other requirements, I don't know. Cancer cell cytoplasm, in and of itself, my restore those conditions as well. I know of one experiment where a particularly aggressive form of cancer cell was fused with a normal somatic cell. The fusion forced the cancer cell to redifferentiate and the hybrid cell went into Go state, eventually followed by apoptosis (programmed cell death). So, there are important cytoplasmic interactions between the two types of cells.

Question: How do prokaryotic cells perform cell division, since there is not a distinct nucleus? When eukaryotic cells undergo mitosis, it results in two identical daughter cells, each with a nucleus. Prokaryotic cells are cells that do not contain a distinct nucleus.

Answer: Cell division in prokaryotic organisms is significantly simpler than that in eukaryotes. This is because prokaryotes have much less complex DNA, and they do not have to worry about ensuring that each of the new cells receives an approximately equal number of organelles. All cells reproduce by actually dividing down the middle until the cell membrane pinches closed and two new "daughter" cells are formed. In prokaryotes, there is very little else to discuss. Once the DNA of the cell is replicated (using a process which will be discussed in the next chapter), each copy moves toward an opposite side of the cell by attaching to the cell membrane. The cell then elongates until it is approximately double its original size. Finally, the cell membrane on either side pinches inward and forms two new cells. Hope this helps!! ~*A3N*~

Question: How soon after the first cells in the primordial soup were the first plant cells and plant life evolved? I have only a high school biology understanding, so please do not be afraid to give a very thorough answer. So from the first cell created, bacteria or something else, how did plant cells come to be? Plant cells would have had to come on quite earlier than animals requiring respiration due to the inhabitable atmosphere. And would it have been difficult for the cells in the primordial soup to be in water later?

Answer: Plants came quite late. Cyanobacteria, related to the chloroplasts in plant cells, appeared about one billion years after life formed and caused the "Great Oxygenation Event". The oxygen wiped out most life that was used to a reducing atmosphere. Most living cells have enzymes to deactivate the toxicity of oxygen unless they live in oxygen-poor environments. The term "primordial soup" is becoming antiquated, and is not really applicable. The complex mixture of organic compounds in the oceans prior to the appearance of life had been consumed by bacteria long before oxygenic photosynthesis changed the mix of dissolved gases. The earliest algae came at least 300 million years after cyanobacteria and true plants did not appear for another billion years.

Question: How do you make protected cells in openoffice spreadsheet unselectable? I know how to protect the cells using cell formatting and tools->protect document->sheet but I don't know how to make the protected cells (unable to modify) unselectable as well. I want so that the user can only select the highlighted cells and enter info and not be able to even select the protected cells.

Answer: Right click on the cell you want to protect select format cell.. click on the protection tab make sure locked is checked click OK to close the window click on tools > protection > protect sheet un-check the option "Select locked cells" press ok

Question: How are blood cells different from cells of teeth or from cells of skin? Every part of human tissue or organ or bones is made up of cells right? What is different in cells of teeth that make them so hard?

Answer: In the Blastocyst Stage a group of Stem cells Embryonic Stem Cells differentiate to give rise to all kind of cells...Blood cells are formed from Haematopoetic Stem cells...it depends on the differentiating signals...

Question: How is the process of cytokinesis different in plant cells than in animal cells? How is the process of cytokinesis different in plant cells than in animal cells? A. Plant cells form a cell plate. B. Animal cells form a cell plate. C. Vacuoles complete the process. D. The two new daughter cells aren't exactly alike.

Answer: A. Plant cells form a cell plate.

Question: How to copy and past multiple column cells into once cell in Excel? Hi, how can I copy and paste multiple cells in a column going down, into one cell (a new workbook entirely)? It just keeps pasting all the cells down one by one like usual, but I want it all to be in one cell, separated by comas if possible. Thanks!

Answer: Here is one way to do it with a VBA event handler and a macro. The following example assumes: The 'column going down' is column A. The workbook containing the cells to be 'copied from' is named 'Book1'. The workbook to 'copy to' is named 'Book2'. The cell in Book2 containing the combined data is cell A1. To modify the Event Handler below to a different 'column going down', change Line 6 to the column number of your column. To change to column C, the Line 6 would be: If ActiveCell.Column = 3 Then Line 18 would be: If ActiveCell.Column <> 3 Then (Column Z would be column 26) Copy the code below, modified if necessary to the clipboard: Private Sub Worksheet_SelectionChange(ByVal Target As Range) Dim selLength As Long On Error Resume Next Columns("IV:IV").Hidden = True Application.ScreenUpdating = False If ActiveCell.Column = 1 Then selLength = Selection.Count If selLength = 1 Then Range("IV1").Value = Range("IV1").Value & _ ActiveCell.Value & ", " Else For Each Cell In Selection Range("IV1").Value = Range("IV1").Value & _ Cell.Value & ", " Next End If End If If ActiveCell.Column <> 1 Then Range("IV2").Value = Left(Range("IV1"), _ Len(Range("IV1")) - 2) Range("IV1").Value = "" End If End Sub Open your workbook containing the data to be copied. Select the worksheet containing the data to be copied, and right click the sheet tab. Select 'View Code'. Paste the code into the sheet module editing area to the right. In the menus at the top of the VBE, select INSERT > MODULE In the macro below, make the following modifications: Line 6: Change "Book2" to the name of your workbook to copy to, i.e. "New Data" Line 8: Change "A1" to the cell reference you wish to copy the combined data to, i.e. "F5" Line 10: Change "A:A" to the column letter of the cell to copy the data to, i.e. "F:F" Line 13: Change "Book1" to the name of your workbook containing the data to copy, i.e. "Data" Then, copy the modified macro to the clipboard and paste it into the newly created Module1 in the VBE. Sub Combine_and_Copy() Application.ScreenUpdating = False Range("IV2").Select Selection.Copy ActiveWindow.WindowState = xlMinimized Windows("Book2").Activate ActiveWindow.WindowState = xlMaximized Range("A1").Select ActiveSheet.Paste Columns("A:A").AutoFit Application.CutCopyMode = False ActiveWindow.WindowState = xlMinimized Windows("Book1").Activate ActiveWindow.WindowState = xlMaximized ActiveWindow.ScrollColumn = 1 End Sub Close the VBE and return to the worksheet. Press ALT + F8 When the Macros window opens, highlight this macro and click 'Options..' Enter a letter to be used as a keyboard shortcut and click 'OK'. Close the Macros window. Save the workbook. Minimize this workbook and open the workbook to 'copy to' and minimize it. Maximize the 'copy from' workbook. Select a range of cells in your column to 'copy from' and press CTRL + your shortcut letter. That range of cells will be 'comma concatenated' in the appropriate cell in the 'copy to' workbook. You can select a single cell. You can click any number of random cells in the column. You can select a 'contiguous range of cells' You can select a 'contiguous range of cells' and any number of random cells. When you activate the keyboard shortcut, all will be copied to the other workbook. Now, if you want to automatically open the 'copy to' workbook when you open the 'copy from' workbook, you can add this routine. With the 'copy from' workbook open, press ALT + F11 Double click 'THIS WORKBOOK' in the Microsoft Excel Objects in the upper left quadrant. Paste the following code into the workbook module editing area: Private Sub Workbook_Open() Workbooks.Open "D:\Book2.xls" ActiveWindow.WindowState = xlMinimized Windows("Book1").Activate ActiveWindow.WindowState = xlMaximized End Sub Note: Change "Book1" to the name of the 'copy from' workbook, i.e. "Data". Change \Book2.xls" to the name of the 'copy to' workbook, i.e. \New Data.xls" Modify the path to the exact location of the 'copy to' workbook. Close the VBE and return to the worksheet. Save the workbook.

Question: What type of cells tend to be damaged the most during chemotherapy and radiation treatments? What type of cells tend to be damaged the most during chemotherapy and radiation treatments? Epithelial cells? Nerve tissue? Skeletal muscle cells ? Collagen and fibrous tissue ?

Answer: Cancer cells and any other cells that divide rapidly. TV

Question: How is it that the cells in different body tissues are able to perform different functions? A. The cells exhibit different patterns of gene expression B. The nutrient preferences of particular tissues play a role. C. The cells contain different genes. D. The age of the cells making up the tissues plays a role. E. The mutations that have accumulated in the cells of the different tissues control funtions.

Answer: Its A. All cells contain the same exact DNA! What makes them function differently is that different cells express the genes differently, due to genetic markers which turn certain genes on and off.

Question: How are cancer cells similar to normal cells, and how are they different? I know that a similarity would be cells regenerate, and a difference would be cancer cells grow uncontrollably. Is there anything else?

Answer: There are 6 hallmarks of a cancer cell: 1 - They are able to produce molecules that promote their own growth 2 - They are resistant to molecules from other cells that would limit their growth 3- They are able to avoid apoptosis (normal cell death) 4 - They are able to replicate endlessly 5- They are able to promote the generation of new blood vessels to supply them with nutrients 6 - They are able to metastasize (migrate) to other regions of the body The basic idea, as already mentioned is that cancer cells can replicate endlessly and are out of the control of the body. In most early cancers, the cells themselves tend to look like the tissue from which they originate. Thus, at an early stage, a lung cancer will look a lot like a normal lung cell, except for the fact that it keeps growing. These early cancers are the ones referred to as benign, because they tend to stick around in the tissue they originate from and are usually easily removed. However, as cancer cells mature, they look less and less like the original tissue cell. In fact, mature cancer cells actually resemble stem cells. If you think about it their are many similarities, both reproduce endlessly and both are immortal. The difference between a stem cell and a mature cancer cell is that the cancer cell cannot be regulated by the body. The mature cancer cell also gains the ability to metastasize at which point it is considered malignant since it can invade other tissues making complete removal difficult.

Question: What causes cells to become insulin resistant? Is insulin resistance reversible? I am prediabetic ( in the form of impaired glucose tolerance) so I wanted to know if the cells in my body that have become insulin resistant will become normal again. I exercise regularly and eat small meals, I eat an average of about 120 or less carbs a day, I am in excellent shape (5'3' and 102lbs), and I am planning on taking supplements that lower blood sugar. So can my cells ever become non insulin resistant after doing all that?

Answer: Your body mass index is 18.1 kg/M2. If you are age 25 or older this would represent 'underweight' status. If you are younger than age 18 your will be above the 5th percentile which would be considered acceptable. There is a correlation between weight and insulin resistance but clearly that is not your case. This emphasizes the fact that diabetes is not simply a condition of the obese. Quite honestly we have no idea what the precise nature of insulin resistance is. If someone is over-weight - which you are not - reducing weight decreases insulin resistance. I doubt that your insulin resistance will be able to be reversed but I wonder where the diagnosis of insulin resistance came from. This requires rather sophisticated testing. Having 'glucose intolerance' or being a 'pre-diabetic' most definitely is not synonymous with having insulin resistance. I do not use terms such as glucose intolerance, pre-diabetic, or borderline diabetic as I believe that these terms miss the point entirely. There is an approximately 10 year lead-in time of pathophysiologic damage prior to the glucose becoming consistently elevated and being diagnosed with type 2 diabetes which I suspect is what is at issue here rather than type 1 diabetes where insulin resistance does not play a role. I do not have specific information but I must wonder from what you are saying if you are an 'early' diabetic. These individuals do not necessarily require pharmacologic intervention. The first step is typically a low glycemic index diet, weight loss (not an issue in your case), and exercise. It sounds as if you have all of these in order. I strongly believe that type 2 diabetes should be sub-divided into type 2A and type 2B. 2A would be type 2 diabetics with a 'lean' body mass index - which would be your case. 2B would be type 2 diabetics with a body mass index of greater than 30 kg/M2 - assuming that they are older than age 25. I start 2A diabetics - when pharmacologic intervention is required - on insulin. I start 2B diabetics - when pharmacologic intervention is required - on oral medications with the caveat that most type 2 diabetics will be on insulin within 10 years of diagnosis. I do not know of any so-called 'supplements' that lower blood glucose. Please do not be upset that I am suggesting that you might have early diabetes as I have far too little information to offer an informed opinion. Indeed one of the problems in answering questions in this forum is that people do not provide enough information. If you provide me with additional and more detailed information I will try to be of further assistance. I wish you the very best of health and in all things may God bless.

Question: What is the # of cells formed during both animal and plant mitosis and meiosis? What is the # of cells formed during the mitosis and meiosis for both animal and plant cells? Please list them separately. Also what is the # of chromosomes in those new cells?

Answer: for human, a somatic cell contains 46 chromosomes, and gametes have 23. in mitosis, the diploid parent cells divide into 2 diploid daughter cells. in meiosis, the parent divides into 4 haploid cells after meiosis II. it depends on what plants you're talking about. some plants are haploid and produces diploid gametes.

Question: What is a major structural advantage that eukaryotic cells have over prokaryotic cells? 1. What is a major structural advantage that eukaryotic cells have over prokaryotic cells? Why is this so important? 2. Identify one similar and one different way each type of cell uses flagella. 3. The cytoskeleton of eukaryotes serves many functions. One of these functions is served in prokaryotes by a different major structure. Which structural feature is it? How do these different structures serve the same function in the two cell types?

Answer: The biggest structural advantage I can think of is the presence of a nuclear membrane. It is believed widely by evolutionists that everything was initially prokaryotic, and the invagination of a membrane around the genetic material was the catalyst for the evolution of more complex multicellular organisms. The extra membrane around the genetic material protects it from damage from UV radiation and therefore prevents or limits the denaturing of genetic material (unwanted mutations or destruction of material). This is important for obvious reasons! I won't get into how this allowed cells to become specialized/allow for multicellular organisms. so: 1) Eukaryotic cells have a nuclear membrane that provides the genetic material with extra protection. This is important because the genetic material is responsible for everything the cell is and does. Any small damage to this material can cause detrimental results in a cell. The protection from UV radiation also allows for organisms to be in the sun directly rather than having to remain underwater (think of the implications of THAT!). 2) Eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells both use flagella for locomotion. Intraflagellar transport (IFT) is a function eukaryotic cells utilize that prokaryotes do not (IFT is responsible for building and maintaining the structure and function of primary cilia and is essential for endochondral bone formation) 3) Structural filaments in prokaryotes serve the same function of cytoskeleton in eukaryotes. Your teacher is probably looking for you to compare the cell wall with the cytoskeleton as far as protection, but recent developments have shown that there are structural analogues of all three major cytoskeletal proteins (actin, tubulin and intermediate fiber proteins) in prokaryotes. You could always go ahead and give your teacher this answer to impress him! These filaments in prokaryotes have roles in cell shape, polarity and many other complex functions that I don't think need to be discussed here. More concisely: 1) Nuclear membrane in eukaryotes important because it protects genetic material 2) Similarly use locomotion, prokaryotes don't use intraflagellar transport 3) Cytoskeleton serves same function as cell wall. Both protect the cell. Better answer: Cytoskeleton in eukaryotes analogous to structural filaments in prokaryotes. Both have functions in cell shape, polarity, and act as a scaffolding to affect integrity of cell shape, act as transducers, determine polarity of a cell and have large roles in cell division (act as organizer proteins).